[Đáp án IELTS Reading] Blind to Change (Giải thích chi tiết)

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Blind to Change

How much of the world around you do you really see?

Picture the following and prepare to be amazed. You’re walking across a college campus when a stranger asks you for directions. While you’re talking to him, two men pass between you carrying a wooden door. You feel a moment’s irritation, but you carry on describing the route. When you’ve finished, you’re told you’ve just taken part in a psychology experiment. “Did you notice anything after the two men passed with the door?” the stranger asks. “No,” you reply uneasily. He explains that the man who initially approached you walked off behind the door leaving him in his place. The first man now rejoins you. Comparing them, you notice that they are of different height and build and are dressed very differently.

Daniel Simons of Harvard University found that 50% of participants missed the substitution because of what is called change blindness. When considered with a large number of recent experimental results, this phenomenon suggests we see far less than we think we do. Rather than logging every detail of the visual scene, says Simons, we are actually highly selective. Our impression of seeing everything is just that. In fact, we extract a few details and rely on memory, or even our imagination, for the rest.

Until recently, scientists believed that vision involved creating images within the brain. By forming detailed internal representations of our surroundings and comparing them over time, we could detect any alterations. However, in his book Consciousness Explained, philosopher Daniel Dennett argued that our brains only store a few key details about the world, which is why we can function effectively.

According to Dennett, creating elaborate images in short-term memory would consume valuable cognitive resources. Instead, we record what has changed and assume everything else remains unchanged. As a result, we inevitably overlook some details. Experiments had demonstrated that we tend to ignore elements in our visual field that seem unimportant, such as a repeated word or line in a text. But even Dennett didn’t fully realize just how little we actually ‘see.’ A year later, John Grimes from the University of Illinois drew attention by showing that people who were presented with computer-generated images of natural scenes failed to notice changes made while their eyes were, for example, scanning the scene or blinking. Dennett was pleased: “In hindsight, I wish I had been bolder, as the effects are more pronounced than I originally claimed.”

Subsequently, it was discovered that our eyes don’t even need to be moving to be deceived. A typical laboratory experiment might display an image on a computer screen, like a couple dining on a terrace. The image would briefly disappear, replaced by a blank screen, then reappear with a significant change, such as a raised railing behind the couple. Many people search the screen for up to a minute before spotting the alteration, and some never see it.

This is disconcerting. However, ‘change blindness’ is somewhat artificial because, in real-life scenarios, a visible motion usually signals a change. Yet, not always. As Simons points out, “We all know the experience of missing a traffic signal change because we briefly looked away. “Inattentional blindness’ refers to not noticing a feature of a scene when you aren’t paying attention to it.”

Last year, Simons showed people a video of a basketball game and asked them to count the passes made by one of the teams. After 45 seconds, a man in a gorilla suit slowly walked behind the players. Forty percent didn’t notice him. When the tape was replayed, and they were simply told to watch it, they easily saw the gorilla. Some even doubted it was the same video.

Now, consider if the viewers had been driving a car, and the man in the gorilla suit had been a pedestrian. Some estimates suggest that nearly half of all fatal motor vehicle accidents in the US result from driver error, including attention lapses. It’s more than just academic interest that has spurred research into these cognitive errors.

These errors prompt critical questions: how can we reconcile such significant lapses with our subjective experience of continuously perceiving a rich visual environment? Last year, Stephen Kosslyn from Harvard University demonstrated that imagining a scene activates parts of the visual cortex similarly to actually seeing it. He argues that this supports the idea that we only absorb the information we consider important and mentally fill in the gaps where details are less crucial. “The illusion that we see ‘everything’ is partly due to filling in gaps with memory,” he says. “These memories can be shaped by beliefs and expectations.”

Ronald Rensink from the University of British Columbia in Canada believes our perception of a detailed visual world comes from constructing internal representations. He suggests that the brain first creates a temporary layout of the visual scene, and then our attention enhances the resolution of the scene. “What attention does,” he explains, “is stabilize these representations so they form distinct objects. Once attention shifts, they revert to an unstable, unresolved state.”

While Rensink or Kosslyn propose that internal images or memory play some role, others argue that we can perceive visual richness without storing any of that richness in our brains. Kevin O’Regan, an experimental psychologist, contends that our brains do not store a visual image of the world. Instead, we rely on the external visual environment as different parts of a scene become relevant.

According to O’Regan, our sense of controlling what we see is also an illusion. “We believe that when something flickers outside the window, we choose to look,” says Susan Blackmore from the University of the West of England, who supports O’Regan’s view. “In reality,” she explains, “our change detection mechanisms automatically drag our attention to various stimuli.”

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Câu hỏi

Questions 1–4

Look at the following people (Questions 1–4) and the list of claims below.
Match each person with the correct claim, A–G.
Write the correct letter, A–G in boxes 1–4 on your answer sheet.

• Daniel Dennett
• John Grimes
• Stephen Kosslyn
• Kevin O’Regan

List of Claims

A People overlook changes that happen during eye movements.
B At times, we fail to notice something because we choose to deceive ourselves.
C Retaining every image and memory would hinder our ability to function effectively.
D Sometimes, people overlook the significance of a crucial figure in a scene.
E We misunderstand what we see because we rely on our imagination.
F We don’t have complete control over what captures our attention.
G Imagining a scene and physically being there impact our visual processes in similar ways

Questions 5–9

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?
Write:

• TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
• FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
• NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

5. One expert expressed regret for having underemphasized his argument in a publication.
6. We overlook insignificant items that come into our view.
7. Research into cognitive errors might potentially save lives.
8. The aging process increases the need to fill in gaps in our visual perception.
9. Our eyes are only at risk of being deceived when they are in motion.

Questions 10–14

Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A–G, below.
Write the correct letter, A–G in boxes 10–14 on your answer sheet.

10. Concentrating on a particular aspect of an activity or scene
11. The fact that we make visual errors
12. The part of the picture that we fail to see clearly
13. The idea that we see everything in our visual field
14. Research into the nature of human vision

A is not backed by scientific evidence.
B is provided by memory.
C has been especially fruitful in recent times.
D causes us to overlook other details.
E has sparked significant public debate.
F is challenging for us to accept.
G helps us see the overall picture more clearly.

Đáp án kèm phân tích

Questions 1–4: Matching Feature

1. C

• Giải thích: Daniel Dennett lập luận rằng việc tạo ra những hình ảnh chi tiết trong trí nhớ ngắn hạn sẽ tiêu tốn các nguồn lực nhận thức quý giá, vì vậy não chỉ lưu trữ một vài chi tiết chính để hoạt động hiệu quả.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 4: “According to Dennett, creating elaborate images in short-term memory would consume valuable cognitive resources. Instead, we record what has changed and assume everything else remains unchanged.”

2. A

• Giải thích: John Grimes chỉ ra rằng mọi người không nhận thấy sự thay đổi khi mắt họ đang quét cảnh vật hoặc đang chớp mắt.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 4: “…people who were presented with computer-generated images of natural scenes failed to notice changes made while their eyes were, for example, scanning the scene or blinking.”

3. G

• Giải thích: Stephen Kosslyn chứng minh rằng việc tưởng tượng ra một cảnh vật kích hoạt các phần của vỏ não thị giác tương tự như khi thực sự nhìn thấy nó.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 9: “…imagining a scene activates parts of the visual cortex similarly to actually seeing it.”

4. F

• Giải thích: Kevin O’Regan cho rằng chúng ta dựa vào môi trường bên ngoài hơn là lưu trữ hình ảnh. Susan Blackmore (người ủng hộ O’Regan) giải thích thêm rằng các cơ chế của chúng ta tự động kéo sự chú ý đến các kích thích, nghĩa là ta không kiểm soát hoàn toàn được sự chú ý.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 12: “…our change detection mechanisms automatically drag our attention to various stimuli.”

Questions 5–9: TRUE / FALSE / NOT GIVEN

5. TRUE

• Giải thích: Daniel Dennett thừa nhận rằng lẽ ra ông nên táo bạo hơn trong các lập luận của mình vì các hiệu ứng thực tế còn mạnh mẽ hơn ông nghĩ ban đầu.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 4: “Dennett was pleased: ‘In hindsight, I wish I had been bolder, as the effects are more pronounced than I originally claimed.'”

6. TRUE

• Giải thích: Các thí nghiệm cho thấy con người có xu hướng phớt lờ những yếu tố trong trường thị giác có vẻ không quan trọng.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 4: “Experiments had demonstrated that we tend to ignore elements in our visual field that seem unimportant…”

7. TRUE

• Giải thích: Bài đọc đề cập lỗi lái xe (bao gồm lỗi nhận thức) gây ra gần một nửa số vụ tai nạn chết người ở Mỹ, do đó nghiên cứu này có giá trị thực tiễn trong việc cứu người.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 8: “Some estimates suggest that nearly half of all fatal motor vehicle accidents in the US result from driver error, including attention lapses.”

8. NOT GIVEN

• Giải thích: Bài đọc không nhắc đến thông tin về việc “quá trình lão hóa” ảnh hưởng đến việc lấp đầy khoảng trống thị giác.
• Vị trí: Không có trong bài.

9. FALSE

• Giải thích: Bài đọc khẳng định mắt không cần phải chuyển động thì mới bị đánh lừa; thay đổi vẫn có thể bị bỏ qua ngay cả khi nhìn vào hình ảnh tĩnh trên màn hình.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 5: “Subsequently, it was discovered that our eyes don’t even need to be moving to be deceived.”

Questions 10–14: Sentence Completion

10. D

• Giải thích: Tập trung vào một khía cạnh cụ thể của hoạt động (như đếm số lần chuyền bóng) khiến chúng ta bỏ qua các chi tiết khác (như người mặc bộ đồ khỉ đột).
• Vị trí: Đoạn 7: Thí nghiệm về video bóng rổ và người mặc đồ khỉ đột.

11. F

• Giải thích: Việc chúng ta mắc sai lầm thị giác nghiêm trọng là điều khó chấp nhận vì nó trái ngược với trải nghiệm chủ quan về một thế giới hình ảnh phong phú.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 9: “These errors prompt critical questions: how can we reconcile such significant lapses with our subjective experience…”

12. B

• Giải thích: Những phần của bức tranh mà chúng ta không nhìn thấy rõ được cung cấp hoặc “lấp đầy” bởi trí nhớ.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 9: “The illusion that we see ‘everything’ is partly due to filling in gaps with memory.”

13. A

• Giải thích: Ý tưởng cho rằng chúng ta nhìn thấy mọi thứ trong trường thị giác không có bằng chứng khoa học ủng hộ; các chuyên gia gọi đó là “ảo tưởng”.
• Vị trí: Đoạn 2 và Đoạn 9: “Our impression of seeing everything is just that… The illusion that we see ‘everything’…”

14. C

• Giải thích: Các nghiên cứu về bản chất thị giác của con người đã thu được rất nhiều kết quả thí nghiệm mới và giá trị trong thời gian gần đây.
• Vị trí: Xuyên suốt bài đọc (đề cập đến nhiều nghiên cứu từ Simons, Dennett, Grimes, Kosslyn, Rensink trong các năm gần đây).

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